Gastronomy

The Bible does not provide details on the food at the Last Supper as the Gospels only refer to the bread and wine that was transformed into spiritual nourishment, signifying the path to eternal life. It can, however, be assumed that the empty platter on the table in this scene had been used for a lamb, which was one of the foodstuffs eaten during this Jewish festival and prefigures the sacrifice of Christ who offered himself up in order to save mankind, according to the Christian interpretation. In some Renaissance paintings, however, we encounter various curious alternatives: in one of the panels for the Maestà in Siena cathedral Duccio di Buoninsegna, for example, depicted a suckling pig, which was an animal considered impure according to Mosaic law; Zanino di Pietro painted river crabs in a fresco of Saint George in San Polo di Piave; while in the most celebrated Last Supper in the history of art, Leonardo da Vinci depicted a plate with what seems to be an eel, which were also creatures forbidden in the Judaic tradition. The inclusion of these dishes may perhaps constitute an allusion to the Christian rejection of the Judaic distinction between pure and impure foods.

The opulent beauty of the model suggests a metaphorical association between food and eroticism, reflecting Terence’s maxim sine Cerere et Baco friget Venus, meaning “Without Ceres and Bacchus, Venus freezes”. The secular association of sensuality and food is also echoed in popular beliefs. Thus certain types of pasta are said to have anthropomorphic origins: tagliatelle, for example, were traditionally invented by a cook in imitation of the blonde hair of Lucrezia Borgia, while the original tortellini were modelled on the navel of an obliging lady.

Schwarz’s concern for his appearance reached its height with the celebration of the Imperial Diet (Reichstag in German) in Augsburg in 1530, which was presided over by the Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria and his brother, the Emperor Charles V. Schwarz commissioned three expensive suits for the occasion and managed to lose weight. In other words, he went on a diet for the Diet.

By the time he posed for this portrait Schwarz had got fat again and his excessive enthusiasm for eating may in fact have been the cause of his subsequent apoplexy. On the window ledge we see a glass of red wine, which could be a reference to his nature as a bon vivant or to the origins of his family’s fortune in the wine trade. There is also a sheet of paper with details about the sitter in the form of a calendar and his astrological information. Another unusual element is worth noting: Schwarz’s horoscope written in gold letters on the sky.

In general, the apple was selected as the fruit in question for reasons of semantic similarity (apple in Latin is malum, which is similar to mal) and due to its identification with beauty and pleasure in the classical world. The latter association is reflected in a number of myths including the Garden of the Hesperides and the Judgment of Paris, an episode to which the basket of apples in Pietro Longhi’s painting The Tickle may refer (on display in Room 18)

In comparison with the frugal simplicity of The Last Supper that we looked at earlier, on display in Room 3, this canvas depicts a sumptuous banquet in a sophisticated, theatrical setting in which we see a variety of secular elements such as the servants and the domestic animals that took full advantage of morsels of food thrown on the floor.

Humanist culture, in which artists’ aspirations focused on greater intellectual recognition and social status, gave rise to the appearance of a number of famous cooks and authors of treatises on food such as Cervio, Platina, Scappi and Messisburgo, all of whom recommended that food should be visually agreeable and with a bel colore. In addition, in his writings the painter and theoretician Federico Zuccaro drew a parallel between the noble art of painting and the organisation of a banquet, presided over by discernment, good taste, variety and abundance.

Of equal importance to the food itself was its presentation on silver or maiolica plates, which functioned to emphasise its appeal. In addition, there were the trionfi da tavola, “ornate, temporary decorations made of sugar, marzipan and butter” that were designed by celebrated artists such as Benvenuto Cellini, Giulio Romano, Giambologna and Pietro Tacca. According to one account, during the plague of 1630 the sculptor Tacca (who produced the statue of Philip IV in the Plaza de Oriente, Madrid) melted the sugar of his creations and mixed it with wine in order to fortify his assistants and avoid them fleeing with his studio secrets.

During the Renaissance the pleasures of the table became inextricably linked to sensibility and refinement. Banquets during this period not only satisfied hunger and conveyed the host’s social status; they also offered an excuse for guests to display their good manners and eloquence. Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) is better known as an architect and theoretician but he also wrote Intercenales, which is a collection of short texts designed to be read out during a banquet.

In 1494 a Milanese pilgrim lamented the frugality of a dinner that he attended on his way through Venice: “In my opinion, the Venetians make do with the sustenance provided by art.” There is no doubt that the genius of Venice’s artists has sustained its citizens, who in the 20th century paid homage to their painters by naming dishes after them: carpaccio for thin slivers of raw meat with parmesan, and a bellini for a cocktail, reflecting the colours used by these painters, whose works you can see in Room 7.

The painter Andrea del Sarto, for example, reproduced the Florence Baptistery in sausages and cheese as a table decoration, while according to some accounts the architect Bernardo Buontalenti invented ice cream while Cesare Ripa, the author of a highly influential book on emblems entitled the Iconologia, is referred to in the early literature as a trinciante or meat carver in the service of a cardinal.

One day Esau returned hungry from hunting and asked his brother Jacob for some of the lentil stew that he was eating. On his mother’s advice Jacob asked for Esau’s birthright in return for the lentils, to which his brother agreed, thus scorning the spiritual benefits that the position of first-born implied in favour of momentary, material benefit. This story is the origin of the popular saying that a person has sold his honour for “a handful of beans”. The plate of olives that the boys’ elderly mother holds has been interpreted as a sign of divine approval, as in the Old Testament the olive was one of the gifts of the Promi-sed Land while its oil was a key element in the mass.

Another possible interpretation of this episode is that it revolves around the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to agricultural ones, symbolised by the opposition between the dead game brought back from the hunt by Esau and Jacob’s lentils. In addition, it is interesting to note that the lentils, which are rich in proteins, are accompanied here by a lemon, as it has been proved that the iron in lentils is more easily absorbed if accompanied by Vitamin C, to be found, for example, in citrus fruits.

The soft light from the candle helps to create a holy atmosphere and also reflects the enormous interest in effects of artificial light on the part of northern artists of this period. This is also evident in another work on display in this room, The Supper at Emmaus (ca. 1633-39) by Matthias Stom, in which bread once again plays a crucial symbolic role.

At Pomona’s feet is the fruit that she has carefully grown, including citrus fruit, figs (which were the gift of Dionysus in Greek culture) and melons. While melons were an ancient fruit as they are mentioned in Egyptian texts, during the Renaissance a particularly sweet Armenian variety was planted in the papal orchards of Cantalupo near Rome. It is said that Pope Paul II died from indigestion brought on by melons and that Innocent XIII used them as cups for drinking port in order to bring out its aroma.

In the 17th century cantaloupe melons became highly appreciated in France and Italy where they were grown under glass to protect them from the weather and were watered with water sweetened with honey or sugar. 

These foodstuffs included meat pies, amber or ruby coloured wines in fine glasses painted to emphasise their decorative nature, citrus fruits from hot countries, and sugar (previously a rare commodity) in porcelain bowls.

There has been considerable debate as to whether there is an admonitory or moral message in these works, which can be linked to the type of painting known as a vanitas that was particularly widespread in the 17th century. The presence of watches, broken or tipped over glasses, dried fruit peel on the tablecloth and halfeaten food would thus refer to the inexorable passing of time that devours everything and to the futility of worldly pleasures. This notion, however, is paradoxical, as a rejection of earthly pleasures clearly coexists with the opulent indulgence prevailing in the residence of the upper middle classes.

Peeled lemons are frequently to be seen in Dutch still-life paintings, suggesting a variety of meanings. The spiral of the peel hanging over the edge of the table provokes a sense of precariousness, as does the protruding knife which bears the artist’s signature in this work. Another interpretation could be that the lemon’s pitted skin contains a fragrant interior, just as the perishable body houses an immortal soul. In addition, this fruit was a symbol of temperance and its juice was thought to counteract the effects of alcohol.

Van der Hamen’s still lifes, which are influenced by Sánchez Cotán’s compositions, are a model of simplicity. They are imbued with a pervasive tranquillity and a meditative mood that transforms the humble objects depicted in them. “God also walks among the cook pots”, to quote the famous words of Saint Theresa.

After the Revolution, the restaurant became the new temple of gastronomy in which to sample refined dishes previously only available to the aristocracy. “Architecture is the most noble of the arts, while art’s most celestial manifestation is that of the pastry chef” affirmed Carême, one of the great geniuses of 19th century cookery and a chef notably influenced by painting in the visual quality of his creations.

In De Witte’s scene a woman examines the merchandise before the attentive gaze of a hungry dog who may at any moment take a bite from one of the enormous fish with silvery scales from the North Sea. We also see a young girl touching the tail of another fish and a surprising detail in the presence of a stork, which the artist would include in subsequent paintings of this type.

Some scholars have seen an erotic reference in the cook’s ambiguous gesture, emphasised by the partridges hanging in the background, which are a traditional symbol also to be seen in two paintings on display in Room 9, The Nymph of the Fountain by Lucas Cranach the Elder, and Hercules at the Court of Omphale by Hans Cranach.

Oysters became habitual elements in the game of love due to their supposedly aphrodisiac properties, as can be seen in another work in the Carmen Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection, Interior with two Women and a Man drinking and eating Oysters by Pieter Hendricksz. de Hooch (Room B). 

The subject of Balla’s painting has nothing to do with cookery as it is one of a series on the demonstrations held in Rome calling for Italy’s involvement in World War I, a decision finally taken in May 1915. We should bear in mind, however, that the provocative Futurists waved the banner of revolution in all areas of life. The year 1930 saw the publication of the Futurist cookery manifestation in which they expressed their dislike of pasta, which they considered to have lowered Italians to the most basic level.

The Futurists opened an experimental restaurant called Tavern of the Holy Palette. It served dishes such as “intuitive antipasti”, “Fiat chicken”, in which the chicken was cooked on ball-bearings that gave it a taste of aluminium, “Alaska Salmon cooked with Sunbeam and Mars sauce”, “edible Meteorites” and “visual meat”, all only apt for outlandish palates.

All the senses were involved in the celebration of their “Aero-banquet”, in which various perfumes reached the table via a ventilator and announced each dish, the eating of which was accompanied by poetry and music. The sense of touch was also evoked as diners had to touch pieces of silk and velvet or strips of sandpaper in order to participate in a multi-sensory aesthetic experience.

It was Nedick’s that offered these workers a complete menu of hamburger, coca-cola and chips in seconds. It was a pioneer in fast food until it was overtaken by its rival McDonald’s, which opened its first self-service restaurant in 1937 in Pasadena, California, in response to the inhabitants’ dependence on the car. These chains were joined many years later by ones focusing on “ethnic” food: Neapolitan pizzas, Mexican tacos and Japanese ramen, all essentially the same and devoid of personality in their effort to avoid surprises.

Nonetheless, it was not only the price, speed and functionality that contributed to the success of these chains. The transgressive pleasure of eating with one’s hands, the soft or crunchy textures and the sweet-and-sour taste of the sauces reproduce pleasurable oral and taste sensations from our childhoods which is when our palate develops.

The view of this part of Madrid reflects the way it looked during the reign of Charles II. It was a meeting place for the elite members of the capital’s society but also for the working classes. People gathered to see and be seen, to have picnics, take part in a range of festivities and celebrations and exchange news.

Fountains and water sellers were common sights on Madrid’s streets before houses had individual water supplies. According to a Treatise on Water of 1637 “one of the great virtues of the Spanish is that they drink a lot of water as they are not as enthusiastic about wine as other Europeans.” 

If you look carefully at this painting you will also see a churrera or seller of fried dough strips. Known as “fruits of the frying pan”, these sweetmeats originated in the Arab world. They became extremely popular in Spain and also spread to South America. The strolling vendors who sold them are no longer to be seen on the streets of Madrid but their image in this painting evokes a rich gastronomic heritage which, like Spain’s artistic patrimony, is an inalienable cultural treasure that should be preserved and appreciated.